“Finder of Lost Articles.”

So there are well-meaning people out there who think that you can find lost things by invoking St Anthony.

When I heard this today, my heart sank. It seems so blatantly superstitious and hardly a Christian thing to do if it would distract you from praying directly to the God of St Anthony.

First of all, I was curious who exactly St Anthony was. There are a number of people in church history with this name, such as a pioneer of ascetic monasticism in third century Egypt. However, St Anthony of Padua was born in Spain in 1195, and, early in life, became an Augustinian canon (similar to a monk), and later joined the Fransiscan order, a new monastic order at the time which represented the front-line of Christian dedication. What prompted Anthony to join was the martyrdom of five young Franciscan monks who were preaching the Christian gospel in Muslim-majority Marocco. Like the martyrs who inspired him, he set out for Morocco, but had to return on grounds of ill health. On his return his ship was blown off course to Sicily and he ended up in Italy, where he came to the attention of Francis, the head of the Franciscan order, who entrusted Anthony with teaching the Friars.

Anthony's connection with lost things is that his precious psalter (the Book of Psalms), with all his teaching notes, had been stolen by a renegade fellow-monk. Anthony prayed to God and the thief was prompted both to return the stolen item, and himself to rejoin the monastic order he had abandoned. Interestingly one of the quotations ascribed to Anthony is, “Attribute to God every good that you have received. If you take credit for something that does not belong to you, you will be guilty of theft.” The quotation seems very pertinent to the questionable practice of invoking the prayer of saints rather addressing prayer to God directly.

Anthony, recognised after his death as Doctor evangelicus, was known as someone who knew his Bible well, and as a preacher. At an ordination ceremony in Forli, when several others declined, Anthony was called on to “speak whatever the Holy Spirit put in his mouth.” Later in life, from 1230 he lived and preached at Padua. If his preaching did not lead to his hearers repenting, he described it was “hunting all day and returning with an empty game-bag.” In 1231 he died, aged only 36.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

 At Radcliffe Road Baptist Church we have been working our way through 1 Peter, and, most recently, the verses that speak of giving a "reason for the hope that is in us" (1 Peter 3:15). 

In many, if not most cases, the opportunities we have to tell people the message of the Christian faith come as we respond to questions asked (see also Colossians 4:6). In Peter's time, and in our time, those questions may be asked less than sympathetically. Indeed, when the Apostle says "be ready to give a defence (apologia)", in many cases he meant just that: Christians might have to defend themselves in court (e.g. Acts 26), or in a court-like setting (e.g. Acts 17). 

Apologetics (the defence of the faith) is about responding to such questions or objections. In the second century there was a whole cohort of Christian teachers, such as Justin Martyr, called the Apologists, who engaged with the questions and objections of those around them, presenting the Christian faith to the Greek-speaking world in which they lived. Later, Christian thinkers such as Tertullian and Origen continued this tradition. There have been many Christian apologists since, such as, for example, C S Lewis in the 20th century, or John Lennox and William Lane Craig today. 

Last night at the midweek meeting at church, I asked each person present to write down for me questions that are often asked, and also a difficult question to answer. 

Some questions were familiar, and many of these came up several times: 

1. Why does God allow evil, injustice and suffering? (We attempted an answer to this together as a group.) 

2. Alleged errors and contradictions in the Bible 

3. Who created God? 

4. Isn't being a good person good enough? 

5. Why Christianity over other religions? Don't all ways lead to God/salvation? 

6. What about those who have never heard or responded to the gospel? 

7. What happens when you die/after death? 

8. Why do you believe in God? How do you know yours is the right faith? 

One or two questions were unique: 

1. How does God have a son? (A very relevant question for those from a Muslim background)  

2. Who will I be with in heaven: my first husband or my second? (cf. Matthew 22:22-33)

3. Why is the Bible not clear on areas that cause division? 

It would be interesting to hear what other questions people are asking. Exercises like this one prompt us to listen more carefully to those around us. Sometimes, as Christians, we can be out of touch with the real issues and questions people ask, and we need to make sure we are 

Will the true church please stand up (John Chysostom)

"There comes a heathen and says, “I wish to become a Christian, but I know not whom to join: there is much fighting and faction among you, much confusion: which doctrine am I to choose?” How shall
we answer him? “Each of you” (says he) “asserts, ‘I speak the truth.’” No doubt: this is in our favour. For if we told you to be persuaded by arguments, you might well be perplexed: but if we bid you believe the
Scriptures, and these are simple and true, the decision is easy for you. If any agree with the Scriptures, he is the Christian; if any fight against them, he is far from this rule."

(John Chrysostom, quoted by P. Schaff) 

Madeira, Pearl of the Atlantic

Madeira is a beautiful archipelago, known as the "Pearl of the Atlantic" off the northwest coast of Africa, which has had strong ties with Portugal since it was colonised in 1419 - the first territory to so be "discovered" during the Age of Exploration. Its capital is Funchal and its total population, which is Portuguese speaking, is just under 300 thousand. The main island is about the same area as the county of Middlesex in England. 

In 1838 Dr Robert Reid Kalley from Scotland began a work which led to the creation in 1845 of the first Portuguese-speaking gospel church. It met in the capital, Funchal. This work grew to 2000 people, but bitter persecution led to this community of believers being dispersed, many going into exile, particularly to Jackson in the USA. Dr. Kalley himself only escaped the island with his life by being carried on a stretcher disguised as an old woman. He went on to be a missionary in Brazil, where he died in 1888. 

There are currently several, mainly expatriate churches on Madeira. 

Two Portuguese-speaking families with connections to Brazil, one of them native to the island, have recently moved to the island with a vision to start a gospel church, and services have already started. If you are interested in hearing more, please contact me by email! 

Origins of Christianity in India

St Thomas Cross

Christianity reached India from the earliest times. There is a reliable tradition that the Apostle Thomas preached there from 52г, seeing the conversion of members of the Brahman caste, as well as local Jews, founding a church and ordaining local clergy. Indian believers in Christ were called "nasrani" from the word "Nazareth". 

In 180 it is possible that Pantaenus, the Christian teacher from Alexandria, found this church, which had the gospel of Matthew in "Hebrew". 

When trader-missionary Thomas of Cana arrived in 345, along with 400 refugee believers, there was already a community of Christians. The incomers belonged to the Church of the East ("Nestorians") with its central episcopal see at Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Over time these links were strengthened. Patriarch Timothy I founded the Metropolitan See of India. Thus a second branch of Indian Christians emerged: the "southern" Christians associated with Thomas of Cana, as opposed to the "northern" branch tracing their roots back to the Apostle Thomas.   

In the XVIth century explorers and missionaries arrived in India to evangelise, and found an existing, indigenous church. Over time the Thomas Christians divided into various communions.  

Hades took a body, and met God face to face! (Catechetical Sermon of St. John Chrysostom)

If any man be devout and love God, let him enjoy this fair and radiant triumphal feast. If any man be a wise servant, let him rejoicing enter into the joy of his Lord. If any have labored long in fasting, let him now receive his recompense. If any have wrought from the first hour, let him today receive his just reward. If any have come at the third hour, let him with thankfulness keep the feast. If any have arrived at the sixth hour, let him have no misgivings; because he shall in nowise be deprived therefor. If any have delayed until the ninth hour, let him draw near, fearing nothing. If any have tarried even until the eleventh hour, let him, also, be not alarmed at his tardiness; for the Lord, who is jealous of his honor, will accept the last even as the first; he gives rest unto him who comes at the eleventh hour, even as unto him who has wrought from the first hour. And he shows mercy upon the last, and cares for the first; and to the one he gives, and upon the other he bestows gifts. And he both accepts the deeds, and welcomes the intention, and honors the acts and praises the offering. Wherefore, enter you all into the joy of your Lord; and receive your reward, both the first, and likewise the second.

You rich and poor together, hold high festival. You sober and you heedless, honor the day. Rejoice today, both you who have fasted and you who have disregarded the fast. The table is full-laden; feast ye all sumptuously. The calf is fatted; let no one go hungry away. Enjoy ye all the feast of faith: Receive ye all the riches of loving-kindness. Let no one bewail his poverty, for the universal kingdom has been revealed. Let no one weep for his iniquities, for pardon has shown forth from the grave. Let no one fear death, for the Savior’s death has set us free. He that was held prisoner of it has annihilated it. By descending into Hades, He made Hades captive. He embittered it when it tasted of His flesh. And Isaiah, foretelling this, did cry: "Hades, said he, was embittered, when it encountered Thee in the lower regions." It was embittered, for it was abolished. It was embittered, for it was mocked. It was embittered, for it was slain. It was embittered, for it was overthrown. It was embittered, for it was fettered in chains. It took a body, and met God face to face. It took earth, and encountered Heaven. It took that which was seen, and fell upon the unseen.

O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory? Christ is risen, and you are overthrown. Christ is risen, and the demons are fallen. Christ is risen, and the angels rejoice. Christ is risen, and life reigns. Christ is risen, and not one dead remains in the grave. For Christ, being risen from the dead, is become the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep. To Him be glory and dominion unto ages of ages. Amen.

I did not send them....

 "I did not send them; they sped of themselves; hence they are unable to preserve their very selves, much less to build up another's soul." 

(quoted by Yannoulatos, "Monks and Mission in the Eastern Church)  

"Я их не посылал: они сами побежали, посему они не могут хранить самих себя, тем более созидать чужую душу." 

(А. Яннулатос цитирует отца церкви)

VIb. The Church of the East, the East Syrians or "Nestorians" (Excursus)

Of the Apostles it is Thomas, along with Thaddeus of Edessa and Mari, who is associated with the spread of the gospel in Mesopotamia; there were established Christian communities here by the mid-third century. The lingua franca of these areas was Syriac, closely related to the Aramaic spoken by the Lord. These churches initially came under the patriarchal see of Antioch in Syria. The political power in control of this area was first the Parthian Empire, and then, from 224, the Sasanid Empire.

From 311 Christianity was first tolerated and then officially adopted in the Roman Empire. This meant that Christians in the Sasanid Empire become politically suspect, and there were persecutions of Christians, particularly under rulers Shapur II (339-379) and Khosrau I (ending 545). 

In the fifth century, both for the above political reasons, and also in connection with the Nestorian controversy, the Christian church in the Persian empire became autonomous. In 410 the Catholicos of Ctesiphon was declared Grand Metropolitan (later Patriarch), and in 424 independent of the "western fathers". After the condemnation of Nestorius in 431, in 484 the self-styled "Church of the East", i.e. the Christian church in the Sasanid Empire, affirmed the theology of Theodore of Mopsuestia, which emphasised (some would say over-emphasised) the two distinct natures of Christ (the Nestorian tendency). In 489 the theological school at Edessa was moved to Nisibis within the borders of the Persian Empire. The theology of the Church of the East was further articulated by Babai the Great (551-628) in his work, Book of Union, which speaks of Christ's "two qnome (natures)". 

Following the Muslim conquest of Persia in 644, the Christians of the Seleucia Catholicate-Patriarchate made a major contribution to the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, translating works into Arabic, and also in the fields of philosophy, science and medicine. 

Already by the sixth century the Church of the East had expanded with missionary work into Central Asia, India and among the Mongols. By 635 the Church of the East had reached China, as commemorated by the Nestorian stele. The scrolls found at Turfan (modern-day Xinjiang province, China, dated to the eighth century) include many Christian texts in Syriac, Sogdian and Turkic (Uighur). 

A major figure in the Church of the East was Patriarch Timothy I (780-823) under whose ministry missionary work progressed further. Incidentally, Timothy I's Dialogue with Al-Mahdi demonstrates both a powerful Christian apologetic vis-à-vis Islam, and also the amicable relations which existed between the Muslim Abbasid rulers and their Christian subjects. The period from 800-1200 represents the apex of the Church of the East, embracing the Kara Khitai (in modern-day Kyrgyzstan), India (Kerala and Patna), and the Kerait, Naimans and Merkits (north of China). Navekath in modern-day Kyrgyzstan was a major episcopal see, and in this area there are remains of churches with open-air naves, arguably an architectural form later used by Muslim mosques. There are even possible Christian sites in Korea (Geongju) and Japan (Koryungi Temple). 

In 1368 the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown and the Mongols, along with the Christians, thrown out. This was followed by the rule of Tamerlane (1370-1405), who almost completely eradicated the church. Only seven bishoprics survived.  

Введение в книгу: "20 этапов по пути от Эфеса до краев земли"

 

С какого места начать повествование об истории церкви? Кто-то начнет с Эдемского сада, где, как только согрешили наши прародители, Бог изрек евангельское обетование: «…оно будет поражать тебя в голову, а ты будешь жалить его в пяту». Кто-то начнет с города Харрана на Ближнем Востоке, где Бог призвал Авраама, праотца еврейского народа, оставить дом отца и идти в землю обетованную, или же с Синая, где Бог дал закон народу Израильскому, только что избавленному Им от рабства в Египте. Можно начать повествование с города Назарета, где пребывала Матерь Господа Нашего, Мария, когда Ангел возвестил ей о том, что она родит Иисуса-Спасителя; или же с Вифлеема, где родился Христос… Можно было бы начать с реки Иордан, где Иоанн Креститель крестил Иисуса, когда почил на Нем Дух Святой, и Отец возгласил: «Сей есть Сын Мой возлюбленный». Городок Капернаум в Галилее стал «штаб-квартирой» земного служения Иисуса, когда «Он ходил, благотворя и исцеляя всех, обладаемых диаволом, потому что Бог был с Ним». В горнице Он установил Вечерю («…сие есть тело Мое»), на Голгофе Он был распят и взял на себя все грехи мира, в гробе Иосифа из Аримафеи Он воскрес из мертвых… На горе Елеонской Он попрощался с учениками, пообещав сошествие Духа Святого на учеников, что и произошло в день Пятидеятницы. Оттуда Апостолы распространили свидетельство об Иисусе Христе «в Иерусалиме и во всей Иудее и Самарии и даже до края земли».

Все эти места важны, но, если говорить о начале послеапостольского времени, то вернее сказать, что это место – город Эфес, с которого мы и начнем путь следования по ключевым событиям и явлениям церковной истории. Каждый этап этой истории будет представлен ключевым городом, который олицетворяет самые главные явления этого этапа. В совокупности их будет двадцать: столько, сколько веков насчитывает христианская история.

I. Эфес

 

В конце I века Эфес, расположившийся недалеко от Эгейского моря (юго-запад сегодняшней Турции), был третьим городом Римской империи: город большой, международный, весомый экономически и значимый в религиозном отношении. В Эфесе царил культ Дианы (Артемиды). Апостол Павел со слезами прощался с пресвитерами церкви именно этого города, чтобы «совершить поприще и служение» в Риме и дальше. И именно в этот город переехал впоследствии Апостол Иоанн, «возлюбленный ученик» Четвертого Евангелия, и нес там служение, почив около 100 года н. э., последний из Апостолов – свидетелей Иисуса Христа. Можно сказать, что именно в Эфесе началось послеапостольское время, собственно «история церкви».

Какова была первая церковь?

Апостолы оставили после себя диаспору из сотен христианских общин по всему Средиземноморью и дальше. В некоторой степени эти ранние церкви для нас – тайна и загадка. Кто-то представляет себе церковь конца I века в виде свободных собраний, где исполнялись песнопения под музыкальный инструмент наподобие гитары, читались воспоминания о Господе по каким-то свиткам… Кто-то, напротив, сразу проецирует на младенческую церковь все дальнейшее историческое развитие… Третьи предполагают движение, основополагающими принципами которого были отцовство Бога и братство человека, но без догматической составляющей…

Мы имеем дело, однако, не с абстракцией, а с конкретным историческим явлением. Попробуем ограничиваться фактами. Что можно сказать о послеапостольской церкви? Если бы нам довелось побыть в одной из этих общин, что мы могли бы увидеть?

Во-первых, можно было наблюдать общину, которая во многом переняла практику иудейской синагоги. Богослужения проходили не на седьмой день недели (суббота), а в первый (воскресенье), но, тем не менее, воспроизводились многие элементы синагогальной службы: пение псалмов, установленные молитвы, чтение Писания и проповедь («слово наставления»). Кроме утреннего воскресного собрания, которое проводил предстоятель, было еще еженедельное свободное вечернее общение (вечеря любви).

Также, как и синагога, церковь представляла собой организованную общину с единым руководством; её члены тесно общались между собой и участвовали в жизни друг друга. Жизнь церкви управлялась коллегией пресвитеров (они же епископы): «Рукополагайте себе епископов и диаконов» (цитата из раннехристианского текста, Дидахэ). Когда среди членов коллегии стал выделяться главный, и именно он один стал называться епископом, каждая церковь с таким епископом получила статус самоуправляемой и полноценной. Эти церкви были связаны между собой сначала Апостолами самого Иисуса Христа, а потом такими апостолами церквей, как Тимофей и Тит. Спорные вопросы решались конференциями-соборами с участием представителей разных церквей, наподобие Иерусалимского собора, известного нам по Деяниям Апостолов (Деяния 15).

Христианская церковь, также, как и синагоги, вписывалась в «ландшафт» эллинского общества того времени наряду с другими объединениями (societates) как религиозного, так и нерелигиозного характера. Вплоть до IV века богослужения проходили повсеместно, даже в Риме, на греческом языке (исключением были говорящие на арамейском наречии иудеи). Только с IV века на собраниях стали использовать сирийский, коптский и латинский языки.

Церковь отличалась от синагоги именно верой в Триединого Бога: Бога-Отца, Бога-Сына и Духа Святого. Утверждая иудейское Писание («Ветхий Завет»), христиане исповедовали новое, окончательное откровение в Иисусе, Которому христиане с самого начала «поклонялись, как богу» (Император Траян, 112 г.) Вторая половина христианского собрания – вечеря Господня, где верующие принимали хлеб и вино, внимая словам Господа: «Сие есть тело Мое, за вас ломимое». Древнейшие тексты молитв на причастии вдохновлены иудейскими молитвами перед принятием пищи. Церковь торжественно совершала преломление хлебов во имя Иисуса, возможно, в пределах вечерней трапезы – «вечери любви».

Людской состав церкви

Кого же можно было увидеть в церкви? Каков был ее людской состав?

Христианская церковь началась на Святой земле среди иудеев. Не только наш Господь, Матерь Его и родные братья, остальные Апостолы, но и все члены церкви были иудеями. Иудеи делились на евреев (говорящих по-арамейски), эллинов (говорящих по-гречески), и прозелитов, т. е. есть неиудеев, обращенных в иудейскую веру и ставших во всех отношениях иудеями. Примерами последних были присутствовавшие в День Пятидесятницы, или же евнух-эфиоп. Были также самаряне-полуевреи, которым благовествовал Филипп. О самяранах-христианах упоминает Иустин во II веке, но к концу II века, возможно, они сошли на нет. Обострение отношений, а также иудейские войны (66–70 гг. и 135 г.) усугубили разделение между синагогой и церковью, и к середине II века иудейская составляющая церкви была очень мала. В синагогах стали читать проклятие «миним» (раскольникам).

Кроме иудеев, начиная с сотника Корнилия, в доме которого благовествовал Петр, в церковь вошли представители других народов, не принимавших иудейскую религиозную культуру. Корнилий был близок к иудейской синагоге; «чтущий Бога», он, однако, не стал полноценным прозелитом. Такие «приближенные неиудеи» были очень благоприятной почвой для проповеди Евангелия: они уверовали в Иисуса Христа и приняли крещение, но не принимали обрезания, т. е. не приняли религиозную культуру иудаизма. Другим ключевым моментом в развитии церкви был «антиохийский прорыв», когда в Антиохии впервые уверовали эллины, не имевшие никакого отношения к синагоге (Деяния 12). С этого момента и возникло наименование «христиане». У христианина-неиудея Иустина (II век) прослеживается мысль, что христиане – избранный Богом народ, в то время как иудеи-нехристиане уже не есть Израиль.

Кроме высоко-цивилизованных эллинов, среди принадлежащих церкви народов можно было встретить и варваров. Судя по посланию к Колоссянам, уже с апостольских времен и такие представители не говорящих по-гречески народов-дикарей – например, скифы (Скифия располагалась на северо-западном побережье Черного моря) – услышали Евангелие и уверовали.

Кроме этнического, в церкви было еще и социальное разнообразие. Судя по подробным наставлениям апостольских посланий, среди первых христиан было много рабов. (Позже в Риме кто-то из бывших рабов даже поднялся до должности епископа.) Было и какое-то количество рабовладельцев, поскольку и к ним было обращено слово наставления.

Третья плоскость разнообразия в первой церкви – присутствие как женского, так и мужского пола. И для иудейского общества, и для греко-римского мира было непривычно, что Христос беседовал с женщинами и учил женщин. Когда Он воскрес из мертвых, Господь первым явился именно женщине, Марии Магдалине, которая и сообщила об этом Апостолам («апостол апостолам»). Множество женщин уверовало и было среди верующих. В церкви были признанные женские служебные должности («чины»): девы, вдовы и диакониссы.

География церкви I века

А где же были расположены эти христианские общины конца I века – в географическом смысле?

Первым очагом христианства был, разумеется, Иерусалим и окружающие города Иудеи (в том числе Самария). В Иерусалиме была многотысячная церковь и местные общины (например, Иоппия, Кесария). Апостол Иаков Брат Господень, который был ведущим в Иерусалимской церкви, был убит в 62 г. После этого верующие стали выезжать из Иерусалима. Часть христиан-иудеев переместилась в Эфес (см. выше). Перед разгромом Иерусалима в 70 г. другие христиане-иудеи убежали в город Пеллу, располагавшийся за Иорданом в Сирии; он стал новым центром иудействующего христианства.

Кстати, среди соблюдающих закон христиан-иудеев были правоверные «Назореи» и еретические «евиониты». Вплоть до второй иудейской войны 135 г., называемой также восстанием Бар-Кохбы, была община иудеев-христиан в Иерусалиме; все её пресвитеры были иудеями. После этого Иерусалим был закрыт для иудеев и был переименован в город Элия Капитолина. Иерусалимская церковь уже состояла из неиудеев, а иудействующие христиане дожили до V века в Сирии.

Второй очаг христианства – сирийская Антиохия (было несколько городов с таким названием), где впервые услышали Евангелие и уверовали эллины – люди, не имеющие никакого отношения к синагоге (см. выше).

Из Антиохии Павел с Варнавой отправились в миссионерские поездки по территориям сегодняшней Турции (Малая Азия). В результате церковь зародилась по всей Малой Азии, в частности – в провинции «Асия», где самым крупным городом и центром христианства был Эфес. Сюда к 70 г. переехал из Иерусалима Апостол Иоанн и служил в этих краях до своей смерти примерно до 100 г. (Позже Эфес передаст эстафету местной церковной «столицы» новой имперской столице, Константинополю.)

По другую сторону Эгейского моря, напротив Малой Азии находились Македония и Ахайя (сегодняшеняя Греция): первые верующие в Иисуса Христа в этих краях появились в городе Филиппы, где проповедовал Павел. Церкви возникли также в городе Фессалоники, в Коринфе и в других городах. Павел написал в послании к Римлянам такие слова: «…благовествование Христово распространено мною от Иерусалима и окрестности до Иллирика». Иллирик – латиноязычная римская провинция, расположившаяся от сегодняшней северной Албании до прибрежной Хорватии – всего лишь 40 км. к северу от портового города Диррахия в конце Эгнатиевой дороги.

По другую сторону от порта Диррахия через Адриатическое море располагался итальянский полуостров и имперская столица, Рим. В Риме церковь зародилась еще до того момента, как Апостол Павел написал Послание к Римлянам (ок. 58 г.), в котором он поделился с ними своим желанием быть среди них. Там нес служение и Апостол Петр, возможно, до выселения иудеев из города в 49 г. Римская церковь, в том числе благодаря расположению в столичном городе, имела некоторое первенство среди церквей («…которая первенствует в любви», по слову Игнатия Антиохийского). Павел оказался в Риме около 60 г. в качестве узника и провел года два под домашним арестом.

Но Рим – не последняя точка миссионерского движения. Уже к 100 г. церковь распространилась и далее. Сам Павел упомянул о желании благовествовать в Испании, т. е. «за Римом», на западном крае Средиземного моря. Со слов историка церкви Евсевия, другие Апостолы служили дальше на востоке: например, Матфей в Персии, а Фома в Индии. Возможно, Апостол Андрей нес служение рядом с Черным морем. О распространении церкви в южном направлении, в городе Александрии, мы будем говорить в следующей главе.

Мужи Апостольские

Первое поколение христианских мыслителей после Апостолов – Мужи Апостольские. Это те, кто были наставлены самими апостолами и несли служение, – в том числе в городах, известных нам по Новому Завету. Главные среди них – Климент, Игнатий и Поликарп.

Климент Римский служил пресвитером в римской церкви с 88 г. вплоть до своей смерти в 99 г. Если Петр на самом деле основал римскую церковь, то Климент стал его первым, вторым или третьим преемником. На этом этапе своего развития Римская церковь управлялась еще коллегией пресвитеров. Его перу принадлежат два послания к Коринфянам. В коринфской церкви был раскол, и в ответ Климент призывал к единству, миру, должному почитанию пресвитеров, и к подчинению им. Поучительно, что в этой ситуации Климент не говорит об отдельном сане «епископа».

Игнатий родился, вероятно, в 50 г., и стал епископом в Антиохии в конце первого века н. э. По пути на суд и казнь в Риме при императоре Траяне (время его правления – 98–117 гг.) он написал семь посланий церквам, похожих на послания Павла. Хоть в этих посланиях чувствуется и меньшая, чем у Апостолов, глубина осмысления, Игнатий, тем не менее, выступал за истинное воплощение Христа против ереси докетизма, адепты которой утверждали, что Его воплощение лишь «показалось». Его писания не противоречат более поздним решениям церкви, но у Мужей Апостольских бóльший упор делался на нравственное христианское поведение и на вопросы о единстве церкви.

Поликарп родился немного позже, примерно в 69 г. В Эфесе он, вместе с Папием и другими, был наставлен Апостолом Иоанном, беседы с которым он вспоминал. Поликарп стал епископом города Смирна в начале II века и написал свое послание к Филиппийцам в 110 г.; оно показывает, что он был человеком прямым и смиренным, без престижного образования. Однако Поликарп более известен своей героической мученической смертью; он отказался отречься от Христа ценой собственной жизни. В людном амфитеатре его склоняли к вероотступничеству, но он говорил: «86 лет служу Ему, и Он ничем не обидел меня; как же могу поносить Царя моего, спасшего меня?» Мученичество считалось наивысшей формой смерти для христианина. Игнатий, например, отговаривал братьев в Риме предотвратить его смертную казнь (см. выше).

Ранняя книга о церковном порядке того времени, Дидахэ («Учение 12 Апостолов»), содержит чин богослужения для причастия и различные инструкции по христианской и церковной жизни. К трудам Мужей Апостольских относятся также и Послание Варнавы, и Пастырь Ермы. Среди трудов этого периода есть и замечательное послание к Диогнету, которое имеет апологетический характер (защита веры). В нем есть слова, вполне выражающие понимание Евангелия самых ранних времен:

«О сладостное изменение! О непостижимое строительство! о неожиданное благодеяние! Беззаконие многих покрывается одним Праведником, и праведность одного оправдывает многих беззаконников...»

X. East: Ohrid (843-1204)

The end of the second iconoclasm in 842/3 heralded a new epoch of resurgence for Constantinople and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Emperor Michael III come to the throne, followed by Basil I and the Macedonian dynasty which lasted into the eleventh century. Photius the Great, a former high-ranking civil servant, served as Patriarch (860s), later followed by Nicolas Mysticus (tenth century). During this period Constantinople held her enemies at bay and expanded her influence. 

By far the greatest achievement of this time was the successful missionising of the Slavic peoples. The invitation from Moravian ruler, Rastislav, came from a nation that had already embraced Christianity, preferring to join the ecclesiastical orbit of Constantinople and specifically requesting a Slavonic liturgy. Cyril and Methodius, Enlighteners of the Slavs, were dispatched in 863. Bulgaria was Christianised about the same time, first via the medium of Greek, and then likewise adopting the Slavonic liturgy. After Cyril's death at Rome in 867, it was Methodius who continued the work. And his followers, the Five, took refuge in Bulgaria. The Cyrillic alphabet, simpler than the Glagolithic script, is probably the work of one of the Five, Clement of Ohrid. It was from Ohrid (photo - GallopAroundTheGlobe), and also Preslav, centres of Orthodox Chrisitanity in Bulgaria, that, men were sent out to teach and convert the Serbs. Bulgaria also exercised influence on Kievan Rus, whose rulers Olga and her grandson Vladimir were converted in the tenth century, followed by the whole nation. Meanwhile the Balkan areas inside the Imperial limes such as southern Greece were reclaimed and re-evangelised by many, including evangelist-monk Nikon Metanoite. 

The missionary work of the church became a bone of contention between the western Catholic church of Rome and the Eastern Orthodox church of Constantinople, each competing with the other for "spheres of influence". Many areas switched allegiance several times - with what had been the Theodosian line, dividing east and west halves of the Roman Empire, moving back and forth over time. In fact, Moravia ended up within the orbit of the western Catholic church, as did Hungary - not to mention Poland and Croatia, which had never been Eastern Orthodox. By contrast, Bulgaria and later Kievan Rus became centres of Eastern Orthodoxy. The metropolitan bishop of Ohrid in the twelfth century, Theophylact (1050-1107), was a leading Bible scholar, and produced a commentary on the whole Bible. 

Initially, Eastern Orthodoxy was a "foreign religion" in these newly converted nations, such as Kievan Rus'. However, over time, Eastern Orthodoxy became indigenised with local saints such as martyrs Boris and Gleb, homegrown bishops such as Hilarion, Christian history in the form of a Chronicle composed by Nestor, preachers such as Cyril of Turov (1130-1182), as well as a gradual accumulation of local Christian experience, particularly the humble acceptance of suffering in imitation of Christ ("Russian kenoticism"). 

The differences between east (Constantinople) and west (Rome) over the concept of the Trinity (encapsulated in the words "and from the Son" or "Filioque" used the western church) and the role of the Roman Pope (first among equals, as understood in the east, or head of the whole church, as understood in the west) led to the temporary Photian schism 863-867 and then to the permanent schism of 1054. 

Meanwhile, in 963 the first monasteries were founded on Mount Athos, and this become the centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism (replacing Studium). In Kievan Rus, the the great Kiev Pechersk Lavra founded in 1051 became the monastic centre. Having clarified the major issues of Christology by 843, the church turned its mind and attention to the mystic knowledge of God and the process of theosis (participation in the divine energies, akin to sanctification-glorification). In the words of Irenaeus, "God was "humanised", so that humans might be made be deified." A leading figure in this was Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022). By the practice of "mental prayer" he sought and attained the "vision of light", a mystical experience of knowing God in a way transcending understanding. He wrote, "... it is through death and the resurrection that God in His foresight has given us the Kingdom, incorruptibility, the totality of life eternal. Given these conditions, we unquestionably become partakers of the good things to come, that is, incorruptible, immortal, sons of God, sons of the light and of the day, inheritors of the Kingdom of Heaven, since we carry the Kingdom within."

A different, indeed ion some ways opposite approach, was taken by Michael and Italus Psellus, who applied reason to theology, taking a philosophical approach along the lines of Platonism. This led them to speak of the eternity of the soul and to deny a material resurrection of the body. Italus' condemnation by the church in 1076/7 and 1082 reflects Eastern Orthodoxy's different, more mystical approach to theology. 

The military defeat at Manzikert in 1071 marked a turning point in the fate of Constantinople with the rise of the Turks as the dominant power in the Middle East, eclipsing the Arabs. By 1176 Constantinople was clearly in decline and in 1204 it was sacked by the western Christian Crusaders, an event which made the schism even more permanent.  

VIII. The East: Studium (681-843)

By the seventh century the geopolitical and religious map of the Middle East had changed. In the space previously occupied by Zoroastrian Persia, and beyond, the new religion of Islam was gaining ground - both metaphorically and literally. Of the four eastern "patriarchal sees" (places where the leading bishops in the church had their official "seat"), three ended up under Islam, leading to Constantinople, already known as the "Ecumenical Patriarch", becoming even more prominent  In many ways, a trail-blazer in terms of Christian engagement and apologetics vis-a-vis Islam was Theodore Abu Qurrah (750-820), an Arab-speaking Melkite Christian in Syria. He articulated the truths of the Christian faith using the terms and concepts of Islam. In the East Syrian "Church of the East" (Nestorians) Catholicos Timothy I (d. 823) played a similar role.   

The period especially from the mid-seventh to mid-eighth century is referred to as the "Dark Age" of Constantinople due to a lack of contemporary historical sources. This was a time of divisive controversy and it is thought that, until the dust settled, historians feared "condemning saints or canonising heretics". Our only surviving source on the period is the Chronography of Theophanes the Confessor. 

Following the theology controversies over the Trinity (IV century) and Christology (IV-VII centuries), a third stage was the iconoclastic controversy. The issue was, "Is it right to reverence painted representations of the Saviour?" Those who answered Yes were called "iconodules" and those said No were called "iconoclasts". The latter view enjoyed imperial support for two extended periods, leading to division and persecution. Eventually the former won out, although Christians of the Reformation, on the whole, do not follow iconodules on this point. 

The first iconoclastic period began with the removal of the prominent icon of Christ the Saviour from a gate into the city in 726. This first phase of the controversy saw many prominent iconodules exiled and worse. It was John of Damascus, in the paradoxical "safety" of Muslim Syria, who was able to articulate the iconodule position in theological terms, viewing such images and their veneration as a necessary consequence of the incarnation. "I shall not cease to honour matter, for it was through matter that my salvation came to pass . . . Do not despise matter, for it is not despicable; nothing is despicable that God has made." The controversy raged until the Seventh Ecumenical Council in 787, which canonised (gave official church approval to) the reverencing of icons, drawing a distinction between the adoration due to God alone (latria) and the lesser reverence (proskynesis) afforded to, say, an icon of Christ, whereby "whoever venerate the image venerate in it the reality of what is there represented".

A second, less aggressive phase of the iconoclastic controversy came 814-843. This time, it was Theodore of Studium (753-826) - Studium representing a key monastery in the city of Constantinople (photo - Vít Luštinec) - who rallied support for the iconodule cause. Theodore wrote, "The fact that the human person is made in the image and likeness of God means that the making of icons is in some way a divine work." The role of monks like Theodore in this controversy is reflected in his words that "monks are the sinews and foundations of the church". The first Sunday in Lent in 843 Empress Irene re-established the veneration of icons; this is celebrated as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy". 

This same period also witnessed the "reconquest" of the southern Balkan area by Constantinople. From the sixth century, Constantinople retained control only of some coastal areas, while areas further inland in what is now Greece, were dominated by the Avars and Slavs, who had remained resistant to Christianity. Starting in the seventh century, these lands were Hellenised, imperial control reasserted, and the Eastern Orthodox faith spread. It was this "internal" mission which lay the groundwork for the later missions beyond the borders of the Empire to Moravia and Bulgaria, subsequently also reaching, for example, the Serbs and the people of Kievan Rus. It is also interesting that, during this period, Emperor Constantine V (r. 741-775), an iconoclast, married Chazar Princess Tzitzak, who converted to Christianity, taking the name Irene. The same Emperor was also the sponsor at the baptism of a Bulgar ruler called Telerig.    

History of Christianity in Serbia (part one)

The Serbs are a Slavic people, who, moving from "White Serbia" (Bohemia/Saxony), settled in their present homeland around 623 at the instigation of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641). Becoming allies ("foederati") of the East Roman Empire of Constantinople, the Serbs, along with the Croats, accepted baptism from western catholic missionaries, but their "conversion" was short-lived and they lapsed back into paganism. 

Around 870, at the time of the mission to the Slavs by Cyril and Methodius, and later by their disciples, the Serbs again accepted Christianity, under Prince Mutimir, and a bishopric was created at Stari Ras. The Serbs, like the Moravians and the Bulgarians, adopted the Slavonic liturgy and Glagolithic writing system (and later the simpler Cyrillic one).

In 924 Bulgaria annexed Serbia. Later, in 1019, as Bulgaria was, in turn, subsumed within the Empire, the Bulgarian Patriarchate was suppressed. The episcopal see at Ohrid became an archbishopric under the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Serbian church was part of this archbishopric. Greek gradually replaced Slavonic as the language of the liturgy and church.  

In 1217 Serbia was united with a new status as a kingdom and, in recognition of this, in 1219, it was granted autocephalous status (ecclesiastical autonomy) with an archbishop - with his seat first at Žiča monastery, later moving to Peć. This was during the time when the Patriarch of Constantinople was in exile at Nicaea (1204-1261). The first archbishop was the son of King Stefan Nemanjić, Sava (1174-1236), who is considered a pre-eminent saint for the Serbian church.  

In 1346 Serbia was granted Patriarchal status. Indeed, in 1346, the Patriarch of Serbia crowned Stefan Dusan as Emperor. 

However, the Serbs were defeated in battle by the Turks at Kosovo in 1359. Eventually Serbia was conquered by the Turks and the Patriarchate suppressed in 1459.  

Origin of the Slavs and their Christianisation

The Slavic peoples constitute a major element in the ethnic make-up of Eurasia and are represented in diaspora communities across the world. In our time Slavs are divided into East Slavs, which includes the Russian people, West Slavs, including, for example, the Poles and Czechs, and the South Slavs, such as the Serbs and Croats. 

The origins of the Slavic peoples, as distinct from the earlier Balto-Slavs, can be traced back to a Urheimat (homeland) which many would locate in Polesia (southern Belarus, but overlapping with Poland, Russia and Ukraine). In historical sources dating back to the first and second century CE, the Slavs are referred to as "Veneti" and/or "Spori". Particularly during the second phase of the Völkerwanderung (Great Migration) around 500 CE, the Slavs, then known as Antes and/or Sklaveni, spread out in all directions. By 518 they were crossing the northern limes (frontier) of the Empire of Constantinople. By the 7th century the whole Balkan area was known as Skalvinia and was inhabited by tribal communities of Slavs known as Sklaveni, Other Slavs spread west, north and east. 

The Christianisation of Slavs by the Eastern Orthodox Church may, arguably, have begun under Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641), when in 623 Croats and Serbs were settled from what is now Central Europe into their current homelands, however their Christian faith was short-lived. Somewhat later, as the Empire of Constantinople reclaimed areas such as Macedonia and the main Greek peninsula (the "Byzantine Reconquista"), settled by Slavs (and also Avars), these areas were Hellenised, a process, carried out for example under Emperor Nicephorus I (802-811), which included Christianisation. The experience of this missionary work inspired and informed work beyond the borders of the Empire, begun in the 860s: in Bulgaria, and later by Cyril and Methodius and their disciples in Moravia and Pannonia. The Five disciples of Methodius took refuge in Bulgaria, where Clement of Ohrid probably invented the Cyrillic alphabet. It was from Bulgaria that Serbia was evangelised. The work in Kievan Rus enjoyed initial success in 860, but it was the conversion of Princess Olga and later her grandson, Vladimir in 988 that brought Kievan Rus into the orbit of the Eastern Orthodox Church.  

The Slavs were also Christianised by the western Catholic church. The see of Magdeburg was a base for missionary work. For example, Moravia was originally missionised by Frankish missionaries before the Cyril-Methodian mission, and eventually came under the jurisdiction of western church - as did Pannonia. Later, Adalbert of Prague (d. 997) was a leading missionary across eastern Europe. Towards the end of the tenth century various peoples such as the Poles in 966 formally converted to Christianity. Later, in the twelfth century, a missionary crusade was directed against the Wends (a west Slavic people).  

VI. Chalcedon (the East, 430-681)

By about 430 the Roman Empire had largely been Christianised. While the western half of the Roman Empire, with its capital at Rome, was under attack and soon to fall, the eastern half of the Empire survived and thrived as a Christianised society with Constantinople as its capital. Its most illustrious ruler was Justinian who ruled 527-565 and, during that time, was able to temporarily reclaim lands occupied by Germanic peoples, engage in a building programme (most famously reconstructing the Hagia Sophia after the Nika riot) and codify Roman law. The two-headed eagle of Constantinople represented the "harmony" of the priesthood and the kingdom, the church and state working in tandem. In the East, unlike in the west, this always meant the state had the upper hand (this is sometimes termed "Caesaropapism") with the Emperor possessing divinely ordained power and above the law. After Justinian many of the lands to the west were lost again, although the following century Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641) was able to hold the Sassinid Empire of Persia bay until the advent of the Islamic caliphate in the seventh century.

During this whole period, the theological "hot topic" in the church was Christology, that is to say, the relationship between the divine and the human in Christ.

The 381 Council of Constantinople had already condemned the teaching of Apollinarius and affirmed that Christ had a human soul, for, as Gregory of Nazianzen had famously said, “the unassumed is the unhealed”.

For a brief period Nestorius served as Archbishop of Constantinople. Nestorius, who had been trained in the Antiochene School of Theodore of Mopsuetia, was perceived as teaching that the eternal Son of God and the man Jesus are in fact two persons joined in union. Thus, the baby in Mary's womb was just a human. This teaching was opposed by Cyril of Alexandria, who proclaimed “one incarnate nature [sic] of the Logos”. The 431 Council of Ephesus proclaimed Mary to be the Theotokos, the Bearer of God, thus affirming Christ as a single person. This decision alienated a party within the church associated with the School of Edessa, which relocated outside the borders of the Empire to Nisibis. The "Church of the East", the Christian church in the Persian Empire, had already proclaimed itself autonomous in 424 headed by a Catholicos with his seat at Seleucia-Ctesiphon. By the end of the fifth century it had adopted the theology of Nestorius. This church was very missionary minded and reached into Central Asia, India, the Mongols and China. The height of its influence was under Catholicos Timothy I (780-823).

Having resolved that Christ is a single person, the next debate surrounded the issue of "nature". Did Christ have one composite divine-human nature, as Eutyches taught? The Patriarch of Rome, Leo the Great, formulated the orthodox answer to the question, speaking of two natures united but distinct from one another. This was the ruling of the 451 Council at Chalcedon. However, the terminology of the ruling alienated the followers of Cyril of Alexandria, who had used the terminology of "one nature". Churches in Egypt (Copts) and Syria (later known as Jacobites) did not accept the ruling of the Council. They are known as the Oriental Orthodox Churches (or "Monophysites"). These churches, both Coptic and Jacobite, engaged in missionary work, covering an area comparable to the work of the Nestorians. A particularly successful Monophysite churchman and missionary was Jacob Baradaeus (578); there was a twin monophysite movement centred in Egypt. By 575 parallel structures of Oriental Orthodox Churches had been set up. The Chalcedonian church strucure remained and was known as the Melkite (i.e. Imperial) church.

While the Nestorians were outside the Empire, the ongoing presence of non-Chalcedonian Monophysites within the Empire was a major concern for the Empire and for the Church. On the one hand the Monophysites engaged in missionary work. On the other hand they represented disunity. Several attempts were made by Emperors to win over the schismatics with formulations they could accept, such as the Henotikon (482), the theological qualifications of Leontius (d. 543) in respect of “enhypostasis”, or the condemnation of the Three Chapters at the Fifth Ecumenical Council (553), but to no avail. A controversial monphysite formulation used in worship in 512, and then withdrawn, was "one of the Trinity was crucified for us". The Fifth Ecumenical Council was more careful in its language: "one of the Holy Trinity suffered in the flesh".

In the seventh century an attempt was made to speak of the "single will" in Christ. This was proclaimed in Imperial edicts, the Ekthesis (638) and the Typos (648). However, Maximus the Confessor and others perceived this compromise to undermine the full humanity and free cooperation of Christ's human nature in redemption - with implications for our participation in salvation. After Emperors and even a Pope (Honorius I) had opposed what become the orthodox position, the church finally ruled in 681 that there are two wills in Christ.

In the eastern tradition, theologians are mystics. As Gregory of Nyssa wrote, “the one who is going to associate intimately with God must go beyond all that is visible and… believe that the divine is there where the understanding does not reach.” Pseudo-Dionysius spoke of God in apophatic terms i.e. in terms of what He is not (rather than what He is); we progress in the knowledge of God as we follow the three-stage path of purification, illumination and union (theosis). Leading lights of eastern monasticism of the age, based in Palestine, were Euthymius the Great and Sabbas the Sanctified. At Sinai, a second centre of monasticism in the fifth and sixth centuries, was John Climacus (d. 649), who wrote the Ladder of Divine Ascent as a sort of 30-step road-map to ascetic growth and achievement. It was he who was one of the first to speak of the practice of inner mental prayer (hesychasm).

During this time the form of Christian public worship also continued to develop and diverge between east and west. The typical form of an eastern church was no longer the Roman-inspired rectangular basilica, but rather the square-shaped martyrium. These buildings were conceived not merely as "meeting houses", but as images of the cosmic order, places of encounter between heaven and earth. The divine liturgy, as public worship was called in the east, took the command "do this in remembrance of me" as a principle for reenacting the drama of salvation. Augustine had written, “All that is beautiful comes from the highest Beauty, which is God.” Christian worship was, correspondingly, aesthetic in character. During the course of the service first the Scriptures and then the elements for Communion were ceremonially brought into the nave. The culmination of the service is the anaphora prayer before Communion, in which the Holy Spirit is invoked (epiclesis) down upon the bread and wine before the worshippers partake. Following the basic two-part structure (liturgy of the Word followed by liturgy of the Eucharist) established in the early Christian centuries, this was further embellished with more elaborate set petitionary prayers (litanies), anaphora (see above) and songs proclaiming doctrine, such as the Trisagion (438), the creed (510) and “Only-Begotten Son” (536). Roman the Melodist (d.556), John of Damascus, Cosma the Melodist (d. 760) and Andrew of Crete were among those who contributed to the development of the divine liturgy.

IX. Aachen (the Western Catholic Church, 732-1046)

By 750 the “centre of gravity” of the western Christian world had moved from Rome in the south to the Kingdom of the Franks in the north. For centuries, since the fall of the western Roman Empire, Europe had been dominated by Arian (or former Arian) Germanic tribes (such as the Goths). By the eighth century, the Franks, also a Germanic people, but who had been Nicene Christians since the baptism of their ruler, Clovis, in 496, assumed hegemony. This was sealed with military victories, defeating Muslim forces at Poitiers in 732 and defending Rome against the Lombards in the 740s. By the mid-8th century the Pope was transferring his political allegiance from the eastern Christian Empire at Constantinople to the Frankish ruler, Peppin. Later, at Christmas 800, Pope Leo III famously crowned Charles the Great as Emperor of a renewed Roman Empire. Charles saw himself as a ruler with religious and moral responsibility. 

About the same time, following in the footsteps of Irish monks the previous century, several prominent Anglo-Saxon missionaries, such as Wilfrid (later Boniface), Willibrord and Wynfrith, bravely reached out with the gospel to the pagan Germanic peoples such as the Frisians and Thuringians. The former was appointed by Pope Zachary as missionary archbishop of Mainz. Fulda monastery was founded in 744 as a centre for learning and a base for missionary work. Later missionary work among the Saxons would be more political and coercive.

Alongside missionary achievements, the Anglo-Saxons, along with the Franks, furthered a process of “Romanisation” and raised the status of the Papacy. Just as the Pope no longer looked to the Emperor at Constantinople, so the western church also emphasised the Trinitarian theology of Filioque, not shared by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Competing missions to the Slavic peoples became a battle fro competing spheres of influence between Pope Nicolas I (d.867) and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Photius (d. 867). The two branches of the Nicene church were growing apart, divided by differences in ceremony, language, theological authorities (in the West Augustine was the chief authority), models of salvation (the western church spoke of salvation in legal terms) and the understanding of the Trinity. Controversy over the Papacy and the Filioque would lead to the temporary, Photian schism (863-7) and the permanent schism in 1054.

A major focus of the Frankish Kingdom was education; historians speak of the Carolingian Renaissance. At Aachen, the Frankish capital, was the Academy, an institution of Christian scholars, headed by an Anglo-Saxon, Alcuin (d. 804). The “General Admonition” of 791 ordered the creation of schools at monasteries (such as St. Gall) and cathedrals (such as Laon, Mainz, Reims and Orleans) throughout the realm. This is where future monks and priests, but also laymen, were educated. From the XI century some of these schools grew into the first universities in Europe. Preaching in the language of the people, who did not speak the Latin of the church services, was also encouraged, although most preaching involved reading out written sermons by authorities such as Paul the Deacon (d.799). While on the whole this was not an age of great theological thought, in the eighth century in Spain there was controversy over Adoptonist teaching (Elipandus of Toledo & Felix of Urgel), condemned by the church in 799. There was also discussion on the Eucharist (Paschasius versus Ratramnus), the doctrine of Mary (Paschasius was the first to posit Mary's immaculate conception), and also on the doctrine of predestination (Gottschalk, d.869). One of the finest minds of the age was John Scotus Eriugena (810-877). Somewhat later Benedict of Aniane (d.821) spearheaded a process of “Benedictinisation” in the monastic movement, making the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia (6th century) almost universal and placing a major emphasis on liturgical celebration.

The Carolingian Empire declined and broke up by the mid-9th century, and was eventually replaced by multiple kingdoms throughout Europe. Paradoxically, this situation led to the church being dominated by powerful families (“Lay Domination”); during the period 850-1050 popes were typically in office for just a few years at a time. The practice of Lay Investiture integrated the clergy into the feudal structure; clerics were invested in their posts by non-church laymen. (This controversy was finally resolved in 1122.) 

In response to this, and to combat abuses such as simony (the buying and selling of church positions) and non-observance of clerical celibacy, in the tenth century monastic reform movements sprang up in multiple locations. The most famous was Cluny monastery (from 910), free of lay interference, which grew into a huge centralised network of monastic houses across Europe. By the time of Hugo, the Abbot of Cluny was the second person in the western Catholic church – and arguably more influential than the Pope himself.

By the Xth century the church was recovering strength, as reflected in renewed missionary success, converting the Scandinavians and Hungarians to Christianity, who during the eighth century had presented a military threat, as well as the Poles and other Slavic peoples. An important missionary base was the episcopal see of Magdeburg (founded in 968). An important missionary was Adalbert of Prague (d. 997), who spearheaded missionary work throughout Eastern Europe.

XI. "Chartres" (History of the Western Catholic Church 1046-1309)

After centuries of domination by laypeople (872-1046), at the Synod of Sutri in 1046 the westerm Catholic church broke free and a new Pope was installed, Clement II. After a succession of similarly reforming popes, in 1073 the Benedictine monk, Hildebrand, part of the Cluny movement for monastic reform, became Pope Gregory VII. He continued the trend towards centralisation in the name of reform, declaring the pope as universal bishop and vicar of St Peter (Dictatus Papae, 1075) and purging the church of simony (church positions being bought) and sexual immorality among the clergy. Gregory VII's face-off with western Emperor Henry IV, temporarily led to the latter's humiliation, but eventually led to the Pope spending his final years in exile. The longstanding controversy over lay investiture was finally resolved at Worms in 1122, at which it was agreed that the secular power conferred only secular benefits on clerics, while spiritual power lay with the church. The height of papal power and centralisation came under Innocent III, who presided at the 1215 Council (Lateran IV), which proclaimed the Pope to have "plenitude of power"; all power, spiritual and also secular, allegedly derived from the Pope, the "Vicar of Christ". 

Meanwhile, from the time of Pope Urban II (1098), the Western Catholic Church sponsored Crusades, successive military campaigns to reclaim the Holy Sites of Christendom from Muslim control. In 1204 the Fourth Crusade led to the sacking of Eastern Orthodox Christian Constantinople and its occupation by the western powers, established a Western Catholic Patriarch. This act finalised the schism of 1054 between the western Catholic church of Rome and the eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople. Crusades were also directed towards pagans (Northern Crusades) and heretics, such as the Cathars. Later Gregory IX set up the Inquisition (literally: "Interrogation") as means of combating heresy. An alternative, more irenic, non-coercive approach was adopted by preaching orders such as the Dominicans, and western missionaries to Muslims, such as Francis of Assisi and Raymond Lull (see also below).  

The Cistercian movement, founded in 1097, rekindled the reforming zeal of the earlier Cluny monastic reform movement begun in 910. The most famous Cistercian monk was Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), a monk, mystic, preacher and Bible scholar. Another centre of Christian mysticism at the time was the Abbey of St Victor.   

A new impetus in the western church came from various grass-roots movements aiming to get back to the "apostolic life" of the New Testament: simplicity, mission and poverty. An early example were the Poor of Lyons, began by Valdo (hence "Waldensians") from around 1173. This movement was rejected by the church and became a proto-Protestant church, which in the 16th century joined the Reformation. However, later similar movements, such as those began by Francis of Assisi and Dominic Guzman, were given papal blessing and became new mendicant monastic orders (Franciscans and Dominicans, respectively). Other mendicant orders formed somewhat later included the Carmelites (1247). 

The 13th century was also a time of architectural and academic achievement. The Cathedral of Saint Denis, Paris, completed in 1144, became a model for what was later referred to as 'Gothic' style of church architecture ("opus Francigenum"), symbolising the medieval dominance of Christianity and its striving heavenwards. Arguably one of the greatest examples of Gothic architecture is the cathedral at Chartres (picture). At the recently founded universities, following earlier thinkers such as Anselm (1033-1109), Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas and other scholastics systematised Christian thinking, inspired by ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. A motto of scholasticism was "faith seeking understanding".  

After a long period of decline following the death of Innocent III in 1216, under Pope Boniface VIII the emerging Kingdom of France, under Philip the Fair, overcame, leading to the election in 1305 of French Pope Clement V, who never stepped foot in Rome and eventually set up his residence in Avignon from 1309 - the start of the so-called Babylonian captivity of the western church (1309-1377). 

Церковь и общество (Г. Флоровский)

"The early church was not just a voluntary association for "religious" purposes. It was rather the New Society, even the New Humanity, a polis or politeuma, the true City of God, in the process of construction. And each local community was fully aware of its membership in an inclusive and universal whole. The church was conceived as an independent and self-supporting social order, as a new social dimension, a peculiar systema patridos, as Origen put it. Early Christians felt themselves, in the last resort, quite outside of the existing social order, simply because for them the church itself was an "order," an extra-territorial "colony of Heaven" on earth (Phil. 3:20, Moffatt's translation). Nor was this attitude fully abandoned even later when the empire, as it were, came to terms with the church."

(Georges Florovsky, Christianity and Culture vol 2, p132) 

"Ранняя Церковь не была просто добровольным объединением для «религиозных» целей. Она была новым обществом, даже новым человечеством, polis или роlitеuma, истинным Градом Божиим в процессе созидания. И каждая местная община вполне сознавала себя членом всеобъемлющего и универсального целого. Церковь понималась как независимый и самодовлеющий социальный строй, как новое социальное измерение, особая Systema patriados, как сказал Ориген. Первые христиане ощущали себя в конечном счете совершенно вне существовавшего социального порядка, просто потому, что для них сама Церковь являлась «порядком», своего рода экстратерриториальной «колонией Неба» на земле (Фил.3:20). От этого положения не вполне отказались даже и позже, когда империя как бы пришла к соглашению с Церковью. 

(протоиерей Георгий Флоровский, https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/Georgij_Florovskij/bogoslovskie-stati-o-tserkvi/)   

Исполнение великой симфонии (о проповеди Евангелия)

"No two violinists will play a symphony exactly the same, but the brilliance and genius of the composer will be set forth by the faithful artist. This is the task of the gospel proclaimer: to process and package the truth of the evangel for listeners of our time." (David Larsen)

"Два скрипача не исполнят симфонию одинаково, но верный артист передаст мастерство и гениальность композитора. Вот задача того, кто провозглашает Евангелие: обработать и предподнести истину Евангелия для слушателей нашего времени." (Дэвид Ларсен) 

What would I preach on this coming Sunday? (First Sunday after Epiphany)

I have been pondering what I might preach on this coming Sunday, 10 January 2021. (I hope to take up a role as minister of a local church later in the year.) 

Let me first lay out options if I were preaching following the church calendar (lectionary). In terms of the church calendar, which seeks to replicate the events of Christ's life in the Scripture reading and preaching of the church, we find ourselves in the season of Epiphany, after the birth of Christ but before the start of his public ministry. Various options for preaching present themselves:

• The Murder of the Innocents (Matthew 2:13ff) trad. 28 December
• The Circumcision of Christ (Luke 2:21 cf. Galatians 4) trad. 1 January
• The Baptist of Christ (Matthew 3/Mark 1/Luke 3/John 1) trad. the first Sunday after Epiphany (10 January this year) 
• Christ's genealogy in the gospel of Luke (Luke 3:23-38), emphasising his connection with the whole human race
• The presentation of Christ (Luke 2:22ff) trad. 2 February
• Christ in the Temple (Luke 2:41-52), which speaks both of His human nature and of his awareness of His divine Sonship (2:49) 

At this time it would seem right to focus on the first thirty plus years of the Lord's earthly life, leading up to his baptism in the Jordan. A related passage might be Romans 5:12-21 which speaks of Christ as the Other Adam, or the concept of recapitulation, developed theologically by Irenaeus of Lyon, as suggested by Ephesians 1:10. Here is a quotation from Irenaeus' writings:

"For this reason, He also passed through every stage of life, restoring fellowship with God to all [stages of life]... God recapitulated in himself the ancient formation of man, so that he might kill sin, deprive death of its power, and impart life to man." (Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3:6,12) 

There is, of course, no compulsion to follow the church calendar and there may be other more pressing subjects relevant for God's people on a given Sunday. A Scripture which has been relevant recently is 2 Corinthians 2:14 (in particular the words "in every place"). 

Scythia - the revolving door into Europe

Before the days of planes and political asylum, the most common way into Europe was via an area known historically as Scythia - the Danube Basin (Scythia Minor) and the Pontic-Caspian steppe (Scythia Major).  

As I have been writing up a masters thesis on the missionary work from Constantinople, again and again this area and this phenomenon has been relevant. I have identified several phases of the occupation/settlement of these areas. As I am able to access more data and scholarship, I hope to expand the information below with authoritative maps. 

1. Goths and Huns (from 376) 

2. Gepids and Cutrigurs, Utrigurs and Bulgars (from 453) 

3. Slavs and Avars (from 557) 

4. Bulgars/Bulgarians and Khazars; the so-called Pax Chazarica (from 630) 

5. Pechenegs and Cumans (from 10th century) 

There were earlier and later phases of this phenomenon (i.e. pre-IV century and post-XI century). 

In many cases the peoples dominant in this area either went on to migrate into Europe, or lost their ethnic identity vis-a-vis newly dominant peoples. A primary example of the latter would be the Avars who, following their unsuccessful siege of Constantinople, were absorbed by their Slavic neighbours and in the 'reconquest' of the Balkans by Constantinople.